सूत्र एवं स्मृति काल में नारी की स्थिति
गृह्यसूत्रों (ई.पू.600-ई.पू.400) और स्मृतियों (ई.पू.200-ई.300) के रचना-काल में नारी को किसी न किसी पुरुष के आश्रय में रहना अनिवार्य माना गया। पुत्री को पिता के, पत्नी को पति के और विधवा माता को पुत्र के संरक्षण में रहने की व्यवस्था अनिवार्य की गई। इसीलिए उत्तरवैदिक तथा उसके परवर्ती काल में पुत्र की तुलना में पुत्री का स्थान निम्न माना जाने लगा तथा स्त्री की दशा पतनोन्मुख हो गई।
स्त्री के साथ भोजन करने वाले पुरुष को गर्हित आचरण करने वाला कहा गया तथा उस स्त्री की प्रशंसा की गई जो अप्रतिवादिनी (प्रतिवाद न करने वाली) थी। उसका स्वतन्त्र अस्तित्त्व समाप्त हो गया तथा उसके शरीर पर पति का अधिकार मान लिया गया। मनु ने उसे पुरुष के संरक्षण में रहने के लिए निर्देशित किया। जब तक कन्या रहे वह पिता के संरक्षण में रहे, विवाह हो जाने पर भर्ता (पति) का संरक्षण रहे और जब वह स्थविर (वृद्धावस्था) हो तब उस पर पुत्र का संरक्षण रहे।
यज्ञों में नारी की स्थिति
ऋग्वैदिक-काल की तरह उत्तरवैदिक-काल एवं सूत्रकाल में भी स्त्रियाँ यज्ञ करती थीं। इस काल में सुलभा, गार्गी, मैत्रेयी आदि विदुषी स्त्रियां भी थीं जिनकी प्रतिष्ठा वैदिक ऋषियों के समान थी। विदेह के राजा जनक द्वारा यज्ञ के अवसर पर आयोजित शास्त्रार्थ में गार्गी ने अद्भुत प्रतिभा और तर्कशक्ति के आधार पर याज्ञवल्क्य ऋषि से शास्त्रार्थ किया। इन साक्ष्यों से विदित होता है कि ऋग्वैदिक-काल से सूत्रकाल तक स्त्रियों की शिक्षा का समुचित प्रबन्ध था। उस काल की नारी विविध ललित कलाओं में पारंगत थी। उस युग की स्त्रियाँ ब्रह्मचर्य का पालन करती थीं तथा उनका उपनयन संस्कार भी होता था।
नारी की स्थिति में गिरावट
जैसे-जैसे समाज की संरचना क्लिष्ट होती गई, वैसे-वैसे नारी की स्थिति में परिवर्तन आता गया और उसके अधिकार सीमित होते गए। जब आर्यों का सम्पर्क पूर्व के अनार्य लोगों से हुआ तो आर्यों एवं अनार्यों के बीच विवाह सम्बन्ध होने लगे। अतः समाज में अनार्य स्त्रियाँ भी प्रवेश पा गईं।
इन स्त्रियों का वैदिक वाड्मय और आचार-विचार से कोई परिचय नहीं होता था, वे वैदिक मंत्रों का भ्रष्ट उच्चारण करती थी जिसके कारण यज्ञ के भंग हो जाने का भय उत्पन्न हो गया। अतः वैदिक साहित्य को शुद्ध बनाए रखने एवं यज्ञों को निर्विघ्न सम्पन्न करने के लिए स्त्रियों को यज्ञों से अलग रखने के नियम बने।
स्त्री का उपनयन संस्कार
स्मृतिकाल में (ई.पू.200-ई.300) में स्त्री का उपनयन संस्कार स्वतंत्र रूप से समाप्त हो गया किंतु द्विज होने के प्रतीक के रूप में विवाह के अवसर पर स्त्री का भी उपनयन संस्कार अवश्य किया जाता था। यद्यपि स्मृतिकार मनु (ई.पू. दूसरी सदी) ने कन्या के लिए उपनयन संस्कार का विधान किया है तथापि मनु का कथन है कि पति ही कन्या का आचार्य, विवाह ही उसका उपनयन संस्कार, पति की सेवा ही उसका आश्रम और गृहस्थी के कार्य ही दैनिक धार्मिक अनुष्ठान थे।
स्मृतिकारों ने व्यवस्था दी कि बालिकाओं के उपनयन में वैदिक मंत्र नहीं पढ़ने चाहिए। कालान्तर में उन्हें वेदों के पठन-पाठन और यज्ञ करने के अधिकार से वंचित कर दिया गया। शिक्षण-संस्थाओं और गुरुकुलों में जाकर ज्ञान प्राप्त करना कन्या के लिए अतीत की बात हो गई। वह केवल माता-पिता, भाई, बन्धु आदि से अपने घर पर ही शिक्षा प्राप्त करती थी।
विवाह हेतु कन्या की योग्यता
स्मृति काल में विवाह के लिए कन्या की शारीरिक, बौद्धिक एवं आचरण सम्बन्धी योग्यताओं पर भी विचार किया जाता था। शुंगकाल में रची गई मनुस्मृति (ई.पू.200) में कुछ कन्याओं का उल्लेख किया गया है जिनसे विवाह नहीं किया जाना चाहिए। अति सांवली, भूरे वर्ण वाली, पांडुवर्णी, नित्य रोगिणी, वाचाल, भूरी आँखों वाली, अपवित्र, दुष्ट स्वभाव वाली, कटुभाषिणी, मूँछयुक्त, पुरुष के समान आकार वाली, गोल नेत्र वाली, जिसकी जांघों पर बाल हों, जिसके गालों में हँसते-हँसते गड्ढे पड़ते हों और जिसके दाँत निकले हुए हों, ऐसी कन्याएं विवाह के लिए वर्जित की गई हैं।
याज्ञवलक्य स्मृति (ई.100 से ई.300 के बीच रचित) पर ग्यारहवीं शताब्दी ईस्वी में लिखी गई विज्ञानेश्वर की टीका ‘मिताक्षरा’ के नाम से जानी जाती है। मिताक्षरा में कन्या में तीन गुणों का होना आवश्यक माना गया है- (1.) कन्या यवीयसी हो अर्थात् आयु में वर से कम हो, (2.) कन्या अनन्यपूर्विका हो अर्थात् जिसने पहले से किसी अन्य पुरुष के साथ यौन सम्बन्ध स्थापित न किया हो और (3.) कन्या स्त्री अर्थात् माँ बनने के योग्य हो।
बाल-विवाह का प्रचलन
गृह्यसूत्रों ने विवाह विधि में त्रिरात्र-यज्ञ का विधान किया था। विवाह सम्पन्न हो जाने के बाद पतिगृह में वधू के आ जाने पर भी वर-वधू को यह त्रिरात्र व्रत पालन करना होता था। इसमें वर-वधू लवण एवं क्षार युक्त भोजन नहीं करते थे, भूमि पर शयन करते थे। वे केवल दुग्धपान करते थे और सहवास से दूर रहकर पूर्ण ब्रह्मचर्य व्रत का पालन करते थे।
त्रिरात्र व्रत के विधान से संकेत मिलता है कि इस काल में विवाह युवावस्था में होते थे। इस काल में कन्याओं के विवाह की आयु कम होने लगी थी। सूत्रग्रंथों एवं बाद के धर्मशास्त्रों के अनुसार कन्या का विवाह ‘रजस्वला’ की अवस्था से पूर्व कर दिया जाना चाहिए था। धर्मसूत्रकारों और स्मृतिकारों ने कन्या का विवाह 8 से 12 वर्ष की आयु में करने का विधान किया।
गौतम और पाराशर ने बारह वर्ष की आयु में रजोदर्शन होने पर तुरन्त कन्यादान का विधान किया। कतिपय गृह्यसूत्रों ने विवाह-योग्य कन्या का एक लक्षण ‘नग्निका’ बताया है। टीकाकारों ने इस शब्द की व्याख्या करते हुए विवाह योग्य कन्या की आयु 8 से 10 वर्ष बताई है।
विवाह में धन का महत्त्व
विवाह में धन का महत्त्व बढ़ने लगा था। आसुर-विवाह में कन्या के माता-पिता वर-पक्ष से धन लेते थे। ब्राह्म एवं दैव विवाह में कन्या का पिता अपनी पुत्री को भलीभांति अलंकृत करके उसका विवाह करता था।
नारी के सम्पत्ति सम्बन्धी अधिकार
सूत्रकाल में भाई के न रहने पर भी स्त्री के उत्तराधिकार को स्वीकार नहीं किया गया। आपस्तम्ब ने व्यवस्था दी कि पुत्र के न होने पर पुत्री को उत्तराधिकारी के रूप में स्वीकार नहीं किया जाए अपतिु अपनी सम्पत्ति को धर्म के कार्य में व्यय किया जाए। उसने यह भी लिखा है कि यदि उत्तराधिकारी चुनना ही है तो पुत्र के अभाव में सपिंड बालक या शिष्य को उत्तराधिकारी बनाया जाए।
जब वह भी न हो तब पुत्री उत्तराधिकारी हो सकती है। वशिष्ठ, गौतम एवं मनु ने भी उत्तराधिकारी के रूप में पुत्री की नाम कहीं नहीं लिखा है। कौटिल्य ने पुत्र के न होने पर पुत्री को उत्तराधिकारिणी घोषित किया है, चाहे उसे कम ही हिस्सा क्यों न मिले।
स्मृतिकाल तक आते-आते कुछ व्यवस्थाकारों ने यह व्यवस्था स्वीकार कर ली कि यदि विधवा-स्त्री पुनर्विवाह नहीं करती है अथवा नियोग द्वारा पुत्र उत्पन्न नहीं करती है तो उस विधवा को मृत-पति की सम्पत्ति में हिस्सा पाने का अधिकार होगा। मनु ने स्त्री-धन का विस्तृत वर्णन किया है।
मनु के अनुसार स्त्री के छः प्रकार के धन हैं- (1.) माता द्वारा प्रदत्त धन, (2.) पिता द्वारा प्रदत्त धन, (3.) भाई द्वारा प्रदत्त धन, (4.) पति द्वारा प्रदत्त उपहार, (5.) विवाह के समय प्राप्त उपहार, (6.) विवाहोपरान्त पतिगृह से प्राप्त उपहार। इन उपहारों के साथ-साथ वधू शुल्क तथा पति द्वारा द्वितीय विवाह के अवसर पर प्रथम स्त्री को दिया गया धन भी स्त्री-धन में गिना जाता था जिसे पुरुष को नहीं लेना चाहिए। किन्तु स्त्री सम्पत्ति की स्वामिनी होने पर भी उसे पति की आज्ञा के बिना व्यय नहीं कर सकती थी।
याज्ञवलक्य ने पुत्री के हित में विचार व्यक्त करते हुए कहा है कि पुत्र और विधवा के अभाव में पुत्री ही उत्तराधिकारी है। कन्या के पुत्र को हिस्से का चौथाई पाने की संस्तुति अनेक शास्त्रकारों ने की है। कात्यायन तथा भोज आदि धर्मशास्त्रकारों ने पुत्री के सम्पत्ति सम्बन्धी अधिकारों को मान्यता नहीं दी है। विष्णु और नारद ने कन्या के हिस्से का तो समर्थन किया है किंतु अपने हिस्से को ले जाने का अनुमोदन नहीं किया है। नारद का अभिमत है कि कन्या उतना ही हिस्सा प्राप्त करे जितना उसके अविवाहित रहने तक व्यय होता है।
पौराणिक काल (गुप्तकाल) में नारी की शिक्षा
पौराणिक काल (ई.300-ई.600) ही भारतीय इतिहास के गुप्तकाल (ई.275-ई.550) को समेटे हुए है। विभिन्न पुराणों से ज्ञात होता है कि इस काल में नारी-शिक्षा के दो रूप थे- (1.) आध्यात्मिक और (2.) व्यावहारिक।
आध्यात्मिक शिक्षा ग्रहण करने वाली कन्याएँ ब्रह्मवादिनी होती थीं। इस काल के साहित्य में वृहस्पति-भगिनी, अपर्णा, एकपर्णा, एकपाटला, मेना, धारिणी, संनति एवं शतरूपा आदि ब्रह्मवादिनी कन्याओं का उल्लेख हुआ है। ऐसी कन्याओं का उल्लेख भी मिलता है जिन्होंने अपनी तपश्चर्या से अभीष्ट की प्राप्ति की थी। उमा, पीवरी, धर्मव्रता आदि कन्याओं ने तपस्या के बल पर अपनी इच्छानुसार वर प्राप्त किया था।
व्यावहारिक शिक्षा ग्रहण करने वाली ऐसी कन्याओं का सन्दर्भ मिलता है जिन्होंने अपनी तपस्या के बल पर मनोनुकूल वर प्राप्त किया था। घर-गृहस्थी में रहने वाली कन्याएँ गृहस्थी के कार्यों में निपुण होती थीं। पूर्व-वैदिक-युगीन अपाला अपने पिता के कृषि कार्य में सहयोग प्रदान करती थी। उस युग की अधिकांश कन्याएँ गाय दुहना जानती थीं, इसलिए कन्याओं को ‘दुहिता’ कहा जाता था। वे सूत कातना, बुनना और वस्त्र सिलना जानती थीं एवं ललित कलाओं में निपुण होती थीं।
विवाह की आयु
गुप्तकाल तक आते-आते भी कन्या के विवाह की स्थिति पूर्ववत् रही किंतु इस काल में गान्धर्व-विवाह (समाज से छिपकर किये गए प्रेम विवाह) के उल्लेख मिलते हैं जो युवती होने पर स्त्री के विवाह के द्योतक हैं।
हर्ष के काल में नारी की स्थिति
थानेश्वर के राजा हर्ष वर्द्धन का शासनकाल ई.606 से ई.647 तक रहा। हर्ष-काल तक आते-आते सामान्य परिवारों में नारी शिक्षा का प्रसार लगभग पूरी तरह अवरुद्ध हो गया था किंतु समाज के अभिजात्य वर्ग की कन्याओं के लिए शिक्षा के द्वार इस काल में भी पूरी तरह खुले हुए थे। वे प्राकृत और संस्कृत काव्य, संगीत, नृत्य, वाद्य एवं चित्रकला में प्रवीण होती थीं।
हर्षकालीन कवि बाण ने ‘हर्षचरित्’ में लिखा है- ‘राज्यश्री नृत्य-गीत आदि में विदग्ध सखियों के बीच सकल कलाओं का प्रतिदिन अधिकाधिक परिचय प्राप्त करती हुई शनैःशनैः बढ़ रही थी।’
पूर्व-मध्य-काल में नारी की स्थिति
हर्ष की मृत्यु के साथ ही भारतीय इतिहास में प्राचीन काल की समाप्ति होती है एवं मध्य-काल का आरम्भ होता है तथा भारतीय राजनीति के पटल से प्राचीन क्षत्रिय लुप्त हो जाते हैं एवं राजपूत-युग आरम्भ होता है। इस कारण सातवीं शताब्दी ईस्वी से बारहवीं शताब्दी ईस्वी तक के काल को भारतीय इतिहास में पूर्व-मध्य-काल एवं राजपूत-काल कहा जाता है।
इस काल तक आते-आते स्त्री के बहुत से अधिकार सीमित कर दिए गए और स्त्री को अनेक बन्धनों से बाँध दिया गया। विज्ञानेश्वर ने शंख का उद्धरण देकर टिप्पणी की कि वह बिना किसी से कहे और बिना चादर ओढ़े घर से बाहर न जाए, शीघ्रतापूर्वक न चले, बनिये, सन्यासी, वृद्ध वैद्य के अतिरिक्त किसी पर पुरुष से बात न करे, अपनी नाभि खुली न रखे, एड़ी तक वस्त्र पहने, अपने स्तनों पर से कपड़ा न हटाए, मुँह ढके बिना न हँसे, पति या सम्बन्धियों से घृणा न करे।
वह धूर्त, वेश्या, अभिसारिणी, सन्यासिनी, भाग्य बताने वाली, जादू-टोना या गुप्त विधियाँ करने वाली दुःशील स्त्रियों के साथ न रहे। इनकी संगति से कुलीन स्त्रियों का चरित्र भ्रष्ट हो जाता है। इस प्रकार स्त्री पर अनेक नियन्त्रण लग गए तथा वह सामाजिक, धार्मिक और आर्थिक रूप से पुरुष के अधीन हो गई।
पूर्व-मध्य-काल में नारी की शिक्षा
इस युग में अनेक प्रज्ञा-सम्पन्न स्त्रियाँ र्हुईं जिन्होंने काव्य, साहित्य एवं ललित कलाओं में विपुल योगदान किया। नौवीं शताब्दी ईस्वी के प्रारम्भ में मंडन मिश्र और शंकर के बीच हुए शास्त्रार्थ की निर्णायिका मंडन मिश्र की पत्नी ‘भारती’ थी, वह तर्क, मीमांसा, वेदान्त, साहित्य एवं शास्त्रार्थ विद्या में पारंगत थी।
नौवीं शताब्दी ईस्वी के अंत में कवि राजशेखर की पत्नी ‘अवन्ति सुन्दरी’ उत्कृष्ट कवयित्री और टीकाकार थी। इस युग में ऐसी स्त्रियाँ भी हुईं जो शासन-व्यवस्था और राज्य-प्रबन्ध में दक्ष होती थीं तथा शासक अथवा अभिभावक के अभाव में स्वयं शासन करती थीं।
पूर्व-मध्य-काल में विवाह
पूर्व-मध्य कालीन समाज में अल्प-वय-विवाह का प्रचलन जोर पकड़ चुका था। इसका प्रमुख कारण भारत पर होने वाले विदेशी आक्रमण थे, विशेषकर इस्लाम के आक्रमण। विदेशियों ने भारतीय स्त्रियों से विवाह करने आरम्भ किए। धर्मशास्त्रकारों ने आर्य-रक्त की शुद्धता बनाए रखने तथा स्त्रियों के कौमार्य की रक्षा के उद्देश्य से बाल-विवाह का प्रावधान किया।
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